The present invention relates to therapeutic agents and their use for the treatment of diabetes, and in particular for preventing, reducing or delaying the onset of diabetic complications and other disorders of related etiology, such as glycogen storage diseases, including Fanconi's syndrome. More particularly, the present invention relates to a class of enzyme inhibitors which inhibit the enzymatic conversion of fructose lysine (FL) to fructose-lysine-3-phosphate (FL3P), which is believed to be an important step in the biochemical mechanism leading to diabetic complications. This invention also relates to a method of assessing a diabetic patient's risk of experiencing diabetic complications, as well as a method of determining the efficacy of therapeutic intervention in preventing, reducing or delaying the onset of diabetic complications.
There are four particularly serious complications of diabetes, namely, diabetic nephropathy or kidney disease; diabetic retinopathy which causes blindness due to destruction of the retina; diabetic neuropathy involving the loss of peripheral nerve function; and circulatory problems due to capillary damage. Both retinopathy and nephropathy are thought to be subsets of the general circulatory problems associated with this disease state. The role of microvascular dysfunction in late stage diabetes has been recently summarized (Tooke, Diabetes, 44: 721 (1995)). Throughout this disclosure, the terms “diabetes-associated pathologic conditions” and synonymous terms are meant to include the various well-known retinopathic, neuropathic, nephropathic, macroangiopathic, as well as other complications of diabetes and diseases of related etiology, including glycogen storage diseases.
The similarities between the pathologies arising from diabetes and those resulting from aging have been extensively reported. Studies have shown that many diabetes-associated pathologic conditions are clinically very similar to the pathologies normally associated with aging. It has been shown, for example, that in diabetes arteries and joints prematurely stiffen, lung elasticity and vital capacity prematurely decrease. Moreover, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction and strokes occur more frequently in diabetics than in age-matched non-diabetic individuals. Diabetics are also more susceptible to infections, and are more likely to have hypertension, accelerated bone loss, osteoarthritis and impaired T-cell function at a younger age than non-diabetics.
The similarities between diabetes-associated pathologic conditions and aging would appear to suggest a common mechanistic rationale. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed as a common biochemical basis for both diabetes-associated pathologic conditions and aging. The hypothesis most strongly supported by data from human subjects is premised on a non-enzymatic glycosylation mechanism. This hypothesis states that the aging process and diabetes-associated pathologic conditions, such as those described above, are caused, at least in part, by protein modification and cross-linking by glucose and glucose-derived metabolites via the Maillard reaction (Monnier et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 81: 583 (1984) and Lee et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 123: 888 (1984)). The modified proteins resulting from such glycosylation reactions are referred to herein as advanced glycation end product-modified proteins (AGE-proteins). It is widely accepted that 3-deoxyglucosone (3DG) is a key intermediate in the multi-step reaction sequence leading to AGE-protein formation. 3DG is a glucose-derived metabolite that can react with proteins leading to the cross-linking of both intracellular and extracellular proteins, such as collagen and basement membranes.
In the case of diabetic complications, the reactions that lead to AGE-proteins are thought to be kinetically accelerated by the chronic hyperglycemia associated with this disease. Evidence supporting this mechanism includes data showing that long-lived proteins such as collagen and lens crystallins from diabetic subjects contain a significantly greater AGE-protein content than do those from age-matched normal controls. Thus, the unusual incidence of cataracts in diabetics at a relatively early age is explainable by the increased rate of modification and cross-linking of lens crystalline. Similarly, the early onset of joint and arterial stiffening, as well as loss of lung capacity observed in diabetics is explained by the increased rate of modification and cross-linking of collagen, the key structural protein. Because these proteins are long-lived, the consequences of modification tend to be cumulative.
Another factor demonstrating cause and effect relationship between diabetic complications and hyperglycemia is hyperglycemic memory. One particularly striking example of this phenomenon is the development of severe retinopathy in dogs that were initially diabetic, then treated to restore normal blood glucose levels. Although the dog eyes were histologically normal at the time of the treatment, over time diabetic retinopathy developed in these animals in spite of the normalized glucose concentrations (Engerman et al., Diabetes, 36: 808 (1987)). Thus, the underlying damage to the eyes irreversibly occurred during the period of early hyperglycemia, before clinical symptoms were evident.
Diabetic humans and animals have been shown to have higher than normal concentrations of early and late sugar modified AGE-proteins. In fact, the increase in AGE-proteins is greater than the increase in blood glucose levels. The concentration of AGE-proteins can be estimated by fluorescence measurement, as some percentage of sugar molecules rearrange to produce protein-bound fluorescent molecules.
The pathogenic role of AGE-proteins is not limited to diabetes. Protein glycation has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (Harrington et al., Nature, 370: 247 (1994)). Increased protein fluorescence is also seen with aging. Indeed, some theories trace the aging process to a combination of oxidative damage and sugar-induced protein modification. Thus, a therapy that reduces AGE-protein formation may also be useful in treating other etiologically-similar human disease states, and perhaps slow the aging process.
It has generally been assumed that the formation of AGE-proteins begins with the reaction of a protein amino group and a sugar, primarily glucose. One typical literature citation states “The initial adduct formed by glycation of ε-amino groups of lysine residues is the Amadori compound, fructoselysine. Glycation is an initial step in a complex series of reactions, known collectively as the Maillard or browning reaction, which ultimately leads to the formation of crosslinked, precipitated, oxidized, brown and fluorescent proteins”. K. J. Knecht et al., Archives of Biochem. Biophys., 294: 130 (1992).
The formation of AGE-proteins from sugars is a multi-step process, involving early, reversible reactions with sugars to produce fructose-lysine containing proteins. These modified proteins then continue to react to produce irreversibly modified AGE-proteins. It is clear that AGE-proteins are not identical to proteins containing glycated-lysine residues, as antibodies raised against AGE-proteins do not react with fructose-lysine. It is also clear that AGE-proteins exist as multiple chemical species; however few have been identified. The chemical species ε-Amino-(carboxymethyl)lysine has been identified as one important final AGE-protein structure in recent studies (Reddy et al., Biochem., 34: 10872 (1995) and Ikeda et al., Biochemistry, 35: 8075 (1996)). This study failed to chemically identify another AGE-protein epitope that made up approximately 50% of the modified sites. A method of studying the kinetics of AGE-protein formation from ribose has recently been developed (Khalifah et al., Biochemistry, 35: 4645 (1996)). However, this study suggests that ribose may play an important physiological role in AGE-protein formation, supporting the relatively broad definitions of glycated-lysines and fructose-lysine provided below.
Other references point out the distinction between proteins containing glycated lysine residues and AGE proteins, “Equilibrium levels of Schiff-base and Amadori products are reached in hours and weeks, respectively. The reversible, equilibrium nature of early glycosylation products is important, because it means that the total amount of such products, even on very long-lived proteins, reaches a steady-state plateau within a short period of time. Since these early glycosylation products do not continue to accumulate on collagen and other stable tissue proteins over years in chronic diabetes, it is not surprising that their concentration does not correlate with either the presence or the severity of diabetic retinopathy. . . . Some of the early glycosylation products on collagen and other long-lived proteins of the vessel walls do not dissociate, however. Instead, they undergo a slow, complex series of chemical rearrangements to form irreversible advanced glycosylation end products”. M. Brownlee et al., New England Journal of Medicine, 318: 1315 (1988). The only route for production of these modified proteins which is described in the scientific literature involves an initial reaction between proteins and sugar molecules.
Numerous references point out that the formation of AGE-proteins occurs through a multi-step pathway and that 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG) is a key intermediate in this pathway. M. Brownlee, Diabetes, 43: 836 (1994); M. Brownlee, Diabetes Care, 15: 1835 (1992); T. Niwa et al., Nephron, 69: 438 (1995); W. L. Dills, Jr., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 58: S779 (1993); H. Yamadat et al., J. Biol. Chem., 269: 20275 (1994); N. Igaki et al., Clin. Chem., 36: 631 (1990). The generally accepted pathway for formation of 3DG from the reaction of sugars and proteins is illustrated in FIG. 1. As can be seen in FIG. 1, a sugar (glucose) molecule initially forms a Schiff base with a protein-lysine amino group (I). The resulting Schiff base then rearranges to produce fructose-lysine modified proteins (II). The reactions leading up to (II) are freely reversible. (II) can rearrange to produce 3DG and free protein lysine. Subsequent reaction between 3DG and protein is the first irreversible step in AGE-protein formation.
Insofar as is known, it has never been reported that 3DG can be produced by alternative pathways, or indeed, that the major source of 3-DG is from an enzyme catalyzed metabolic pathway, rather than from the uncatalyzed reactions shown in FIG. 1.
Diabetic patients have significantly more 3DG in serum than do non-diabetic patients (12.78±2.49 μM versus 1.94±0.17 μM). (Toshimitsu Niwa et al., Nephron, 69: 438 (1995)). Nonetheless, this toxic compound is found in normal healthy individuals. Thus, it is not surprising that the body has developed a detoxification pathway for this molecule. One of these reactions is catalyzed by aldehyde reductase which detoxifies 3DG by reducing it to 3-deoxyfructose (3DF) which is efficiently excreted in urine (Takahashi et al., Biochem, 34: 1433 (1995)). Another detoxification reaction oxidizes 3DG to 3-deoxy-2-ketogluconic acid (DGA) by oxoaldehyde dehydrogenase (Fujii et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 210: 852 (1995)).
Results of studies to date show that the efficiency of at least one of these enzymes, aldehyde reductase, is adversely affected in diabetes. When isolated from normal rat liver, a fraction of this enzyme is partially glycated on lysines 67, 84 and 140 and has a low catalytic efficiency when compared with the normal, unmodified enzyme (Takahaski et al., Biochem., 34: 1433 (1995)). Since diabetic patients have higher ratios of glycated proteins than normoglycemic individuals they are likely to have both higher levels of 3DG and a reduced ability to detoxify this reactive molecule by reduction to 3DF.
The mechanism of aldehyde reductase has been studied. These studies determined that this important detoxification enzyme is inhibited by aldose reductase inhibitors (ARIs) (Barski et al., Biochem., 34: 11264 (1995)). ARIs are currently under clinical investigation for their potential to reduce diabetic complications. These compounds, as a class, have shown some effect on short term diabetic complications. However, they lack clinical effect on long term diabetic complications and they worsen kidney function in rats fed a high protein diet. As will appear hereinbelow, this finding is consistent with the newly discovered metabolic pathway for lysine recovery underlying the present invention. A high protein diet will increase the consumption of fructose-lysine, which undergoes conversion into 3DG by the kidney lysine recovery pathway. The detoxification of the resulting 3DG by reduction to 3DF will be inhibited by ARIs therapy, which consequently leads to an increase in kidney damage, as compared to rats not receiving ARIs. This is because inhibition of the aldose reductase by the ARIs would reduce availability of aldose reductase for reducing 3DG and 3DF.
The role of 3-DG in contributing to human disease has been previously investigated as will be appreciated from a review of the patents summarized below.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,476,849 to Ulrich et al. describes a method of inhibiting the formation of AGE-proteins using amino-benzoic acids and derivatives. These compounds presumably act by reacting with 3-DG and removing it from the system before it can react with proteins to begin the irreversible steps of AGE-protein formation.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,798,583 and 5,128,360 to Cerami et al. describes the use of aminoguanidine to prevent AGE-protein formation and diabetes-induced arterial wall protein cross-linking. Aminoguanidine was shown to react with an early glycosylation product. This early product is 3DG, as defined herein. These patents do not contemplate the possibility of inhibiting the formation of 3-DG. They focus exclusively on complexing this toxic molecule.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,777 to France et al. describes methods and agents for preventing the staining of teeth caused by the non-enzymatic browning of proteins in the oral cavity. Cysteine and cysteine derivatives are described as particularly useful in this application.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,358,960 to Ulrich et al. describe a method for inhibiting AGE-protein formation using aminosubstituted imidazoles. These compounds were shown to react with an early glycosylation product (3DG). No mention is made in this patent that a metabolic source of 3DG may exist. This patent envisions that 3DG is made exclusively as an intermediate in the non-enzymatic browning of proteins.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,334,617 to Ulrich et al. describes amino acids useful as inhibitors of AGE-protein formation. Lysine and other bifunctional amino acids are described as particularly useful in this regard. These amino acids are described as reacting with the early glycosylation product from the reaction of glucose and proteins. It appears that the early glycosylation product described in this patent is 3DG.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,318,982 to Ulrich et al. describes the inhibition of AGE-protein formation using as the inhibitory agent 1,2,4-triazoles. The inhibitors described in this patent contain diamino-substituents that are positioned to react with and complex 3DG. The patent describes these compounds as reacting with an early glycosylation product (3DG as defined herein).
U.S. Pat. No. 5,272,165 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of 2-alkylidene-aminoguanidines as inhibitors of AGE-protein formation. The inhibitors described in this patent are said to be highly reactive with 3DG. No mention is made of inhibiting the metabolic formation of 3DG in this patent.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,262,152 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of amidrazones and derivatives to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The compounds described in this patent are α-effect amines. W. P. Jencks, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, New York. Compounds of this category are known to react with dicarbonyl compounds, e.g. 3DG.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,258,381 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of 2-substituted-2-imidazolines to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The compounds described in this patent contain adjacent amino groups that can readily react with 3DG.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,243,071 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of 2-alkylidene-aminoguanidies to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The compounds described in this patent are highly reactive with 3DG and function by complexing this reactive, toxic molecule.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,683 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of diaminopyridine compounds to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The diaminopyridine compounds described as particularly useful will react with 3DG to form a stable, six-member ring containing complex.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,130,337 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of amidrazones and derivatives to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The inhibitors described in this patent are α-effect amines which, as is know in the art, will rapidly react with 3DG and form stable complexes.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,130,324 to Ulrich et al. describes the use of 2-alkylidene-aminoguanidines to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The compounds described in this patent function by reacting with the early glycosylation product resulting from the reaction of glucose with proteins (3DG).
U.S. Pat. No. 5,114,943 by Ulrich et al. describes the use of amino-substituted pyrimidines to inhibit AGE-protein formation. The compounds described in this patent are said to rapidly react with and detoxify 3DG.
None of the above-mentioned patents suggest inhibition of the metabolic formation of 3DG as a means of therapeutic intervention to prevent diabetic complications. Indeed, none of these patents even suggest the involvement of an enzymatic pathway in the production of 3DG.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,108,930 to Ulrich et al. describes a method for detecting the levels of aminoguanidine in biological samples. This assay is described as having potential utility in determining kidney function by measuring the aminoguanidine elimination time. The principal utility intended for the assay method described in this patent is in the measurement of tissue levels of aminoguanidine, so that doses sufficient to inhibit AGE-protein formation can be maintained in animal and human studies. No mention is made in this patent of using urine 3DG, 3DF or DGA ratios to determine diabetics at risk for complications.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,231,031 to Szwergold et al. describes a method for assessing the risk of diabetic-associated pathologic conditions and determining the efficacy of therapies for these complications. This patent describes the measurement of two phosphorylated compounds in erythrocytes of diabetic patients. These two compounds were not chemically identified in this patent. However, neither compound is 3DG or 3DF, whose levels are measured in urine in the diagnostic embodiment of the present invention.
Methods for monitoring metabolic control in diabetic patients by measurement of glycosylation end-products are known. The concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin is known to reflect mean blood glucose concentration during the preceding several weeks. U.S. Pat. No. 4,371,374, issued to A. Cerami et al., describes a method for monitoring glucose levels by quantitation of the degradation products of glycosylated proteins, more specifically non-enzymatically glycosylated amino acids and peptides, in urine. This method purports to utilize the affinity of alkaline boronic acids for forming specific complexes with the coplanar cis-diol groups found in glycosylation end-products to separate and quantitate such end-products.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,761,368 issued to A. Cerami describes the isolation and purification of a chromophore present in browned polypeptides, e.g., bovine serum albumin and poly-L-lysine. The chromophore, 2-(2-furoyl)-4(5)-2(furoyl)-1H-imidazole (FFI) is a conjugated heterocycle derived from the condensation of two molecules of glucose with two lysine-derived amino groups. This patent further describes the use of FFI in a method for measuring “aging” (the degree of advanced glycosylation) in a protein sample wherein the sample “age” is determined by measuring the amount of the above-described chromophore in the sample and then comparing this measurement to a standard (a protein sample having an amount of FFI which has been correlated to the “age” of the sample).
Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the present invention may be used to treat any glycogen storage disease. Glycogen storage diseases (glycogenoses or GSDs) are hereditary disorders in which a patient is missing one or more of the enzymes that interconvert sugar and glycogen. The GSDs that are presently known are classified as Types 0 to VII, depending on the identity of the missing enzyme or enzymes, and are also known by common names including von Gierke's disease, Pompe's disease, Forbes' disease, Andersen's disease, McArdle's disease, Hers' disease, and Tarui's disease. Fanconi's syndrome is also believed to be a glycogen storage disease, and, as such, amenable to treatment with compounds of the present invention.
There is a long-standing, unfilled need in existing treatment regimens of diabetic patients for effective means to identify those at risk of developing diabetes-associated pathologic conditions, to prevent, reduce or delay the onset of such conditions by therapeutic intervention and to determine the benefit of such therapeutic intervention. A parallel need exists in the treatment regimens of patients affected with glycogen storage diseases, including Fanconi's syndrome.